Food Engineering

“Food engineering is a scientific, academic, and professional field that interprets and applies engineering, science, and math principles to the production, handling, storage, conservation, control, packaging, and distribution of food products .”

The fields of food science, agriculture, microbiology, chemistry, and engineering are all included in the broad area of food engineering. Food process engineering spans the full spectrum from obtaining raw food ingredients to processing them into food products to preserving, packing, and distributing the food products to the consumer market using thorough research methodologies, cutting-edge machinery, and complex procedures. And this applies to more than simply fresh food. It also encompasses the development and production of nutrient-dense goods in more palatable forms and packaging, such as superfood powder, tablets, oils, and other dietary supplements. This is true for substitutes like superfoods, which provide the same health advantages of fruits and vegetables in a form that is simpler to prepare and eat .There will be a significant growth in these employment in the upcoming years due to the enormous industry that is food engineering, particularly genetic food engineering, which is required to feed the expanding global population. In particular, as seen by the rising consumption of green food supplements and other more practical goods, a growing number of health-conscious consumers are searching for more practical ways to receive their recommended daily intake of nutrients. It also extends to nutritious substitutes like powdered supplements, oils, and other alternatives to food that has been farmed .

One of the main goals of food engineering is to provide healthy, safe food for consumption by humans and animals. In food processing factories, specialised computerised technology is used to manage and prepare high-quality raw materials. They can be used to make drinks, greens powder, vitamins, and other products, or they can be combined with other raw materials. To create various food items, processing involves extracting, sorting, and blending food ingredients. The same procedure is used to make goods like green powders, which are effective alternatives for real organic food but don’t need as much labour as traditional meal preparations .

To reduce the possibility of food contamination and other hazards, the whole food preparation process is carried out in hygienic circumstances. For a longer shelf life once it reaches the market, the processed food may go through a thermal heat treatment or a freezing procedure. The food must be wrapped properly before being sent to the market. Depending on whether the food goods are solid or liquid, several types of packaging are typically employed. The correct packaging is crucial for protecting and safeguarding food goods .

Types of Food Engineering

There are several types of Food Engineering:

1) Refigeration

Removing undesirable heat from one item, substance, or area and transferring it to another is known as refrigeration, sometimes known as chilling. The temperature can be lowered by removing heat, which can be done using ice, snow, cooled water, or mechanical refrigeration .

Working Principle of Refrigerator

In a heat cycle, a refrigerant is a chemical that moves heat from one place to another. When a refrigerant passes through food stored in a refrigerator, it absorbs heat from those products and transfers it to an area with a lower temperature.

Processes of Refigeration

There are 4 Processes of Refigeration:

Compressor, condenser, expansion device, and evaporator are the four main parts of a refrigeration cycle. Between these four elements of the refrigerant loop, refrigerant continues to be delivered.

Methods of refrigeration

Refrigeration for ice
Refrigerator using dry ice
Refrigeration using steam jets
Reducing the refrigeration
Refrigeration of liquids
Refrigeration by air

Four Basic Types of Refrigerators:

French Door

Side-By-Side

Bottom Freezer

Top Freezer

Formula of Refrigerator:

The coefficient of performance for a refrigerator is COP = Qlow/(-W). Calculation information: (a) Qlow/(-W) = COP. (125)/5 J divided by (-W) equals 24 J.

2) Evaporation

When certain water molecules in a mass have enough kinetic energy to eject themselves from the water surface, water is transferred from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere. Temperature (more particularly, the temperature differential between the evaporating surface and the air), relative humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation are the key elements influencing evaporation. See also transpiration and vaporisation .vaporisation is the process by which a material is transformed from its liquid or solid state into its gaseous (vapour) state. Boiling is the term for the vaporisation process when circumstances permit the creation of vapour bubbles within a liquid. Sublimation is the process of directly converting a solid into a vapour. To cause vaporisation, heat must be applied to a solid or liquid. Insufficient heat from the environment may originate from the system itself in the form of a drop in temperature. The cohesive forces that hold the atoms or molecules of a liquid or solid together must be overcome in order to separate the atoms or molecules to produce the vapour; the heat of vaporisation is a direct indicator of these forces.

Why does it occur?

Heat energy causes the bonds holding the water molecules together to fall apart, which causes evaporation. On the stove, applying heat to liquid water is what you do when you boil water. Steam is created when water changes from a liquid form to a gaseous one (water vapour) due to the bonding being broken by the additional heat.

Due to the thermal energy needed to evaporate the water, water evaporates quickly at its boiling point (212° F, 100° C), but much more slowly at its freezing point.Condensation is the reverse of evaporation. The transformation of water vapour back into liquid water is known as condensation. When humid air is cooled, like the surface of an ice-filled glass, condensation happens.

Evaporation Drives the Water Cycle

About 90% of the atmospheric moisture was caused by water evaporating from oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers. (And as oceans cover more than 70% of Earth’s surface, they significantly contribute to the total amount of water evaporating into the atmosphere.) The remaining atmospheric moisture was produced by plant transpiration and (a very small quantity) by sublimation.

On a global scale, the amount of water that evaporates is comparable to the amount of water that falls as precipitation on Earth.

Geographical differences do exist, though. Over the oceans, evaporation is more common than precipitation, although on land, precipitation often outweighs evaporation. The majority of the ocean’s evaporating water returns to the oceans as precipitation. The amount of water that is carried across land and precipitated only makes up around 10% of the water that evaporates from the seas. A water molecule stays around ten days in the atmosphere after it has evaporated. Oceans would almost completely dry up if precipitation runoff and groundwater flow from aquifers were not there.

What is evaporation class 3?

“Evaporation”

The conversion of water from a liquid to a gas. Solar energy drives evaporation of water from the ocean. The evaporated water changes from a liquid form into water vapor a gaseous form.

Condensation

The opposite of vaporisation is the condensation of a vapour into a liquid or a solid, and during this process, heat must be transmitted from the condensing vapour to the surroundings. This heat’s intensity is unique to the material and is equivalent to the heat of vaporisation in terms of numbers. Observe also sublimation and evaporation.

Distillation

Chemical Process

Distillation is the process of turning a liquid into a vapour, which is then condensed back into a liquid state. The simplest illustration of it is when steam from a kettle condenses into droplets of distilled water that are left on a cold surface. Distillation can be used to separate two or more liquids with different boiling points, such as the separation of petrol, kerosene, and lubricating oil from crude oil, or to separate liquids from nonvolatile particles, as in the separation of alcoholic beverages from fermented materials. Other industrial uses include the desalination of seawater and the processing of chemicals like formaldehyde and phenol.

Simple distillation is a general term for the vast majority of distillation techniques used in business and laboratory research. A still or retort is used in this fundamental procedure to heat the liquid, a condenser is used to cool the vapour, and a receiver is used to collect the distillate. When a combination of substances is heated, the most volatile or lowest boiling ingredient distils first, followed by the others, or not at all. This simple device works very well to separate liquids with vastly different boiling points and to purify a liquid containing nonvolatile substances. The equipment is often composed of glass for laboratory usage and joined together with corks, rubber bungs, or ground-glass joints. Larger metal or ceramic equipment is used in industrial applications because it is.

Because conventional distillation is ineffective for separating liquids whose boiling points are near to one another, a technique known as fractional distillation, or differential distillation, has been developed for some purposes, such as the refining of petroleum. In this process, distillation vapours are repeatedly condensed and revaporized in a vertical, insulated column. The still heads, fractionating columns, and condensers that allow some of the condensed vapour to be returned towards the still are particularly significant in this regard. To enable just the most volatile material to travel in the form of vapour to the receiver while returning the less volatile material as liquid towards the still, the goal is to make the closest contact between rising vapour and falling liquid.

How does Evaporation Cause Cooling?

• Natural cooling is brought on by evaporation. This is based on the idea that matter must either receive or lose energy in order to alter its condition. When matter molecules shift from a liquid to a gas, they need energy to use their kinetic energy to overcome their potential energy. The liquid absorbs this energy from its environment as a result.
• Depending on whether the energy is being transferred from the material to its surroundings or vice versa, energy transfer often causes a rise or decrease in the temperature of the substance. There are, however, several exceptions to this rule.
• Phase transition does not produce detectable heat transfer, despite the fact that the substance’s temperature rises during evaporation until the boiling point is reached.
• Until they reach the boiling point, when they begin to start erupting from the liquid and convert into vapour, the substance’s molecules constantly absorb heat energy from the environment and cool it. The amount of energy needed for this phase change is known as the latent heat of vaporisation. The word “latent” means “hidden,” meaning that this heat will not change the temperature reading on a thermometer until the evaporation process is complete, when the entire liquid turns into vapour.

Applications of Evaporative Cooling

1. To keep our bodies cool, we perspire. Evaporation is what transpiration ultimately is. Our body’s water evaporates, using energy in the process and reducing our body temperature as a result.
2. In the summer, we dress in cotton. Since cotton is a powerful water absorbent, it allows more perspiration to come into touch with the air, promoting greater evaporation. We have a cooling effect when wearing cotton clothing because of this.
3. To keep water cold, it is kept in earthenware containers. Similar to the pores in cotton fabric, the pores in the earthen pot’s surface area allow for greater evaporation.
4. On hot, dry days, an air cooler is more efficient. Evaporative cooling is the fundamental idea that drives an air cooler’s operation. The evaporation rate is higher on a hot, dry day when the temperature is high and the humidity is low. Water transforms into vapour by absorbing energy from the atmosphere. The air gets cooled as a result.

3) Packaging

“The covering that surrounds a consumer product and serves to keep it clean and marketable while also serving to confine, identify, characterise, protect, showcase, and promote it.”

The science, art, and technology of packaging involves confining or safeguarding goods for distribution, storage, sale, and usage. The process of creating, analysing, and designing packages is often referred to as packaging. Packaging may be thought of as a well-organized system for setting up products for sale, warehousing, transportation, and final usage. Packaging helps to transport, protect, preserve, inform, and sell. It is completely integrated into commercial, institutional, industrial, and personal use in many nations.

Elements of Packaging

Colours, images, typography, and format are the four primary components of packaging. These components tend to have a high recall rate and make it easier for customers to relate to the brand.

Benefits of Packaging

• Packaging shields the item
• The product is protected from spoilage by packaging
• Packaging lowers expenses
• Packaging communicates
• Packaging promotes cleanliness
• Packaging equals savings
• Preventative measures include packaging

Most Important factor of Packaging

Your business should think about safety, sustainability, attractive design components, and size when choosing packing materials in addition to price. When used properly, main and secondary packaging components may provide a positive customer experience.

Disadvantages of Packaging

• Compared to other methods of packing, heavier weight results in greater shipping costs
• Less resilience to cracks, scratches, and heat stress than other materials
• More flexible proportions than containers made of metal or plastic
• Shards or pieces of glass in food might pose major risks

4) Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is the term used to describe the movement of heat (thermal energy) caused by temperature differences and the consequent distribution and variations in temperature. The exchange of momentum, energy, and mass through conduction, convection, and radiation is the focus of the study of transport phenomena. Heat transfer is the term used to describe the movement of heat (thermal energy) caused by temperature differences and the consequent distribution and variations in temperature. The exchange of momentum, energy, and mass through conduction, convection, and radiation is the focus of the study of transport phenomena. Mathematical formulae can be used to describe these processes.

These rules of momentum, energy, and mass conservation, along with constitutive laws—relations that characterise both the conservation and flow of the quantities involved in these phenomena—provide the foundation for these formulations. Differential equations serve this function by providing the most accurate description of the aforementioned rules and constitutive relations. It is efficient to examine systems and forecast their behaviour by solving these equations.

Heat Transfer – History

The second law of thermodynamics states that heat will always transfer from hot objects to cold ones in the absence of any external work. Heat flow refers to this method of heat transfer.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, scientists assumed that all bodies contained caloric, an invisible fluid that flowed from hot to cold objects. Some of the characteristics given to calorie turned out to be in odds with reality (for example, it had weight and couldn’t be generated or destroyed). For instance, when we rub our hands together, both hands warm up even though they started off at a colder temperature.

Types of Heat Transfer

There are three ways that heat transfer or heat flow can occur:

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

Conduction

Fourier’s law is the cornerstone of conduction. Joseph Fourier developed a comprehensive theory of heat conduction in 1822.

According to Fourier’s Law, the amount of heat flux (q) produced by thermal conduction is exactly proportional to the size of the temperature gradient, and the direction of heat flow is opposite to that of the gradient.

q=−kdTdx
Thermal conductivity, or k, is the name given to the proportionality constant and has the dimensions WmK or JmsK.

A vector quantity is the heat flow. According to the equation above, q will be positive, or flow in the positive x-direction, if temperature decreases with spatial x vector.

q→=−k∇T

where the gradient is denoted by.

Another way to state Fourier’s law is in a straightforward scalar form:

L is the length of space along the direction of heat flow, while q and T are both expressed as positive numbers.

When considering the gas molecules as tiny particles, it is easier to see why gases have high heat conductivity.

By colliding with other molecules, molecules transfer their internal energy. Low-temperature regions will absorb heat from hot molecules because they have lesser internal thermal energy. This hypothetical example and the kinetic theory of gases may be used to determine the thermal conductivity .

The formula T=23KNkB asserts that “for an ideal gas, the average molecular kinetic energy is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.”5. The thermal conductivity rises with the square of the temperature and is independent of pressure.

In solid substance, heat transmission by conduction is simpler. Heat is transferred by lattice vibrations in nonmetallic components (Phonon). Metals have thermal conductivity that can be transported via phonons, but this is not the primary way that heat is conducted.

Analogous definitions

Heat Transfer: Thermal conductivity (grad T) Heat Flux Density

Diffusion: Graduating from partial current density to (Diffusion coefficient),

Electric lead: Electric conductivity grad Uel = current density

Convection

Another type of heat transmission that especially affects fluids is convection. Convection is the transfer of heat as a result of fluid motion. Different circumstances may cause a heat-transporting fluid to migrate.

We may categorise convection as either forced or natural convection depending on how the fluid motion is started. Warm fluid rises while cold fluid falls owing to a difference in density; natural convection is created by the buoyancy effects of a fluid with a variable temperature field that is under the influence of gravity. A fluid is forced to flow by convection when it is moved by an outside force, such as the wind, a fan, a pump, or a suction device.

As the name says, natural convection occurs all around us.

With forced convection, a variety of natural phenomena or man-made devices can be the cause of the fluid flow around a body. Contrary to natural convection, fluid motion does not happen as a result of the fluid from the target body becoming heated. Forced convection may also be thought of as the transfer of a solid into a fluid that causes fluid motion.

The fluid surrounds the body and creates a narrow, slower-moving zone known as the boundary layer. This layer conducts heat, which is then carried away and incorporated into the flow downstream.

Isaac Newton (1701) thought about the convection mechanism and proposed the following straightforward formula for cooling:

T is the temperature of the incoming fluid, therefore dTbodydt=Tbody-T. According to this statement, energy is moving away from the body1.

The following formula describes the steady-state version of Newton’s Law of Cooling, which defines free convection:

Q = h (Tbody-T), where h is the coefficient of heat transfer. This coefficient can be represented by a bar with the symbol h, which represents the average over the body’s surface. The coefficient’s “local” values are shown by h without a bar.

Radiation

No matter whether there is a medium between the two bodies or not, radiation is the phenomena of energy transfer or propagation from one body to another. In contrast, conduction or convection involve the transfer of heat through or inside a body.

Electromagnetic radiation is continuously emitted by all bodies, whether they are liquid or solid. The body’s properties as well as this energy flux’s intensity are dependent on one another. The transfer of heat energy is particularly described as thermal radiation, a kind of radiation. It is based on the body’s surface features and body temperature.

In compared to convection and conduction, radiant heat transfer from comparatively colder bodies that you may frequently come into touch with is frequently overlooked. A stream of photons travelling in a wave-like pattern at the speed of light and carrying energy can be compared to electromagnetic radiation. Energy may travel in a vacuum, where there is no matter, via electromagnetic radiation. The energy of the photons in various electromagnetic radiations is used to categorise them. It is crucial to remember that, according to the “wave-particle duality” of light, a photon’s behaviour can either be that of a wave or a particle depending on its energy.

The range of all forms of electromagnetic radiation is known as the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.

Each instance of radiant radiation is connected with a wavelength () and a frequency (v). The following equations can be used to represent the relationship between EM radiative energy, wavelength, and frequency:

Energy is equal to Planck’s constant multiplied by the frequency, or

Planck’s constant (6,6260700401034Js) is used in the formula E=h.

The table below displays different shapes throughout a spectrum of wavelengths. The range of thermal radiation is 0.1-1000 m.

5) Energy for Food Process

Between 50 and 100 MJ (megajoules) of energy are thought to be required for manufacturing and packing a single kilogramme of retail food.

How Cells Obtain Energy from Food?

As we just saw, for cells to create and sustain the biological order that keeps them alive, they need a steady flow of energy. Food molecules’ chemical bonds, which act as the fuel for cells, are the source of this energy.

Particularly significant fuel molecules include sugars, which are gradually converted to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (Figure 2-69). In this part, we outline the key processes involved in the catabolism, or breakdown, of sugars and demonstrate how ATP, NADH, and other activated carrier molecules are created in animal cells as a result. Since it accounts for the majority of energy generation in most animal cells, we concentrate on glucose breakdown. Additionally, fungi, many bacteria, and plants all use a very similar mechanism. Various more compounds, such fatty acids.

Energy within Food and Agricultural Value Chains

Overview

The agriculture and food industry uses over 30% of the world’s energy. The generation of agricultural inputs, agricultural production in the field, food processing, transportation, marketing, and consumption are all energy-intensive processes. Along agricultural value chains, primary agriculture uses only approximately 20% of the world’s energy whereas food processing, including transportation, consumes around 40%[1].
The FAO estimates that the sector globally emits 9.7 gigatons of greenhouse gases, of which primary production is responsible for over two thirds [2]. Since energy consumption and emission analyses rarely look at the food industry, accurate comparable statistics are hard to come by.

Energy Consumption within Different Steps of the Value Chain

Energy is used extensively and fossil fuels are largely reliant in every aspect of food production. The two energy-intensive agricultural processes are production and processing. This technical research addresses the particular energy requirements for the value chains of rice, dairy, and vegetables.

Agricultural Production

This comprises direct inputs like fuel for tractors and tillage or electricity for running irrigation systems, as well as indirect energy inputs like energy-intensive synthetic fertilisers and insecticides used in agricultural output. Land preparation, cultivation, harvesting, threshing, and irrigation are the broad categories into which agricultural production may be classified.

Processing

The constantly expanding agro-industry has the difficulty of meeting its energy demands within processing, particularly in emerging nations. For instance, between 1993 and 2006, the installed capacity of the country’s fruit and vegetable processing sector was doubled. The production of beverages, grain mill and dairy products, as well as other foods like bakery goods, convenience goods, cocoa goods, and salty snacks, requires the production of 5,300 kilotons of oil equivalent annually, which is used to power the Indian food processing industry.
Washing, cleaning, cooking, chilling, extraction, pureeing, brewing, baking, pasteurising, boiling, drying, and dehydration all need a significant amount of energy. Approximately 50% of the energy used to produce food, such as meat, fish, fruit, vegetables, and edible oil, is electrical energy.

Challenges to Increase Agricultural Productivity

It is challenging to boost the productivity of the agriculture and food business in developing and emerging nations due to the diminishing availability of fossil fuels, deteriorating or nonexistent energy infrastructure, and proportionally rising energy prices. The agricultural business has grown increasingly essential due to strong growth rates and rising export volumes in the quickly developing emerging nations, where this issue is of global economic and political relevance. In the processing of agricultural products, where there are frequently no alternatives to expensive and inefficient diesel-powered technologies or unsustainable wood combustion, the lack of access to reliable and clean energy sources increasingly becomes a significant barrier to development.

6) Food Safety

Key facts

• Food security, nutrition, and safety are all intertwined.
• Nearly 1 in 10 people worldwide, or 600 million, are expected to get sick from eating contaminated food, and 420 000 people die as a result. This results in the loss of 33 million DALYs, or years of good life.
• Unsafe food costs low- and middle-income nations US$ 110 billion annually in lost productivity and medical costs.
• 40% of foodborne illness deaths occur in children under the age of five, which results in 125 000 deaths annually.
• Foodborne illnesses obstruct socioeconomic progress by taxing health care systems and damaging international trade, tourism, and national economies.

Overview

To sustain life and advance good health, it is essential to have access to enough quantities of safe and nourishing food. More than 200 illnesses, ranging from cancer to diarrhoea, are brought on by unsafe food that contains dangerous germs, viruses, parasites, or chemical chemicals. Malnutrition and illness spiral out of control as a result, especially impacting the elderly, the sick, young children, and babies. To help assure food safety and better food systems, effective cooperation between governments, producers, and consumers is required.

Major foodborne illnesses and causes

Infectious or poisonous in nature, foodborne diseases are typically brought on by bacteria, viruses, parasites, or chemicals that enter the body through contaminated food. Chronic illnesses like cancer or acute poisoning can result from chemical pollution. Numerous foodborne illnesses can cause permanent impairment and even death. Here are some instances of food risks.

Bacteria

• Several of the most prevalent foodborne infections, including Salmonella, Campylobacter, and enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli, afflict millions of people every year, often with severe and deadly consequences. Fever, headaches, nausea, vomiting, stomach discomfort, and diarrhoea are some possible symptoms. Salmonellosis outbreaks have been linked to foods including eggs, poultry, and other items of an animal origin. Campylobacter foodborne cases are mostly brought on by raw milk, raw or undercooked chicken, and drinking water. Unpasteurized milk, undercooked meat, and tainted fresh produce are all linked to enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli.
• Infections with listeria can cause a miscarriage in a pregnant woman or the death of a newborn baby. Despite the relatively low incidence of the disease, listeria infections are among the most dangerous foodborne diseases due to their devastating and occasionally deadly health effects, especially in young children, the elderly, and babies. Listeria may develop at refrigerator temperatures and is present in unpasteurized dairy products as well as a number of ready-to-eat items.
• People might become infected with Vibrio cholerae through tainted food or water. Abdominal discomfort, vomiting, and a lot of watery diarrhoea are possible symptoms. These conditions can cause severe dehydration and even death. Cholera outbreaks have been linked to a variety of foods, including shellfish, vegetables, rice, and millet gruel.

Viruses

Some viruses can spread through the eating of food. The symptoms of norovirus, a major source of foodborne illnesses, include nausea, violent vomiting, watery diarrhoea, and stomach discomfort. The hepatitis A virus can also be transferred through food and can result in chronic liver disease. It usually spreads through contaminated raw vegetables or raw seafood.

Parasites

Some parasites, like trematodes found in fish, can only spread through food. Others, including tapeworms like Echinococcus species or Taenia species, can spread to humans through food or close contact with animals. Other parasites that can infect fresh vegetables include Ascaris, Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia. They enter the food chain by water or soil.

Prions

Prions are special in that they are connected to particular types of neurodegenerative illness. Prions are infectious agents made of protein. BSE, sometimes known as “mad cow disease,” is a prion illness that affects cattle and is linked to variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) in humans. The most likely method of transmission of the prion agent to humans is through the consumption of meat products containing designated risk material, such as brain tissue.

The Burden of Foodborne Diseases

Due to underreporting and the difficulty in establishing links between food contamination and the subsequent sickness or death, the impact of foodborne illnesses on public health and economies has frequently been underestimated. The first-ever estimates of the disease burden caused by 31 foodborne agents (bacteria, viruses, parasites, toxins, and chemicals) at the global and sub-regional levels were presented in the 2015 WHO report on the estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases, highlighting the possibility of more than 600 million cases of foodborne illnesses and 420 000 fatalities each year. Children under the age of five bear a disproportionately heavy burden of foodborne illnesses, which are most prevalent in low- and middle-income nations.

The Evolving World and Food Safety

Food security and sustainable development are bolstered by reliable food supply, which also promote international trade and tourism. The number of individuals who purchase and consume food made in public settings has risen due to urbanisation and changes in consumer behaviour. A longer and more complicated global food chain is the outcome of the increased consumer demand for a greater range of foods that has been sparked by globalisation. Food safety is projected to be affected by climate change.

Due to these difficulties, food handlers and manufacturers are now more accountable for ensuring food safety. Due to the rapidity and breadth of product distribution, local crises can easily turn into global emergencies.

A Public Health Priority

Governments should prioritise food safety because they are essential in creating legal and policy frameworks, setting up and executing efficient food safety systems, and ensuring public health. Both consumers and food handlers need to be aware of how to handle food safely and practise the WHO Five Keys to Safer Food at home, at restaurants and in local markets. Using the WHO Five Keys to Growing Safer Fruits and Vegetables, food producers may cultivate fruits and vegetables without risk.

Reference

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_engineering#:~:text=Food%20engineering%20is%20a%20scientific,and%20distribution%20of%20food%20products.
• https://fed.neduet.edu.pk/
• https://www.hec.gov.pk/english/services/universities/RevisedCurricula/Documents/2012-2013/food-engineering%202012-13.pdf